Newman resident Devon Cuimara's home, on the edge of a West Australian desert, is often engulfed in a cloud of red dust.
His town is wedged between two BHP iron ore mines, an industry that helps power the state's economy.
The dusty nature of that industry has unions and residents worried about people's health, with both calling for quick improvements to dust mitigation.
Mr Cuimara said his family wore face masks around town to reduce the amount of dust they inhaled.
"We walk outside on any given day and there'll be a film, and a coat of red dust on everything," he said.
"This dust is getting inside the homes as well and it's terrible.
"Dust is coming in and settling, it's just laughable at the end of the day."
Concerns have been raised about the impact of excessive dust in the mining town after it was revealed air pollution targets had been exceeded due to mining 171 times since 2013.
BHP's mines have been identified as a "dominant source" of the dust by a Department of Water and Environmental Regulation review.
The review shows the target for airborne dust was exceeded 258 times between 2013/14 and 2020/21, with 166 of the events linked to industrial emissions.
A further five events were attributed to industry in 2021/22.
Documents released through freedom of information [FOI] also reveal department staff felt part of BHP's contribution to the review could be at odds with official health advice on air pollution before changing the review in line with BHP's suggestions.
The department review centres on BHP's Part V licences — which regulate ore processing.
It was launched in 2021 after increased dust levels were recorded by the company's monitors.
Released in January 2023, the review details the number of days when the average concentration of dust particles up to 10 microns in diameter [PM10] exceeded the air-quality target.
PM10 is particulate matter 10 micrometres or less in diameter.
By comparison, a human hair is about 100 micrometres.
The target for Newman is 70 micrograms of dust per cubic metre, which is higher than the national environment protection measure of 50 micrograms.
The 70 microgram target was breached 171 times due to mining.
BHP 'contested' health advice
In 2020, the ABC reported the WA Department of Health did not support a decision to deviate from national standards for BHP's Newman operations.
FOI documents now reveal the Department of Water and Environmental Regulation intended to use the national environment protection measure in its review, but this was "contested" by BHP.
Internal emails state the review was delayed while the Department of Water and Environmental Regulation dealt with BHP's position, which staff said was "at odds with current Department of Health advice".
The higher 70 microgram ceiling was ultimately used in the final report.
A Department of Water and Environmental Regulation spokesperson said BHP raised "reasonable concern" that the national environment protection measure was not representative of the Pilbara's "naturally dusty environment", so a 70 microgram target was used.
The spokesperson said BHP "asserted" the higher figure was a more "representative guidance value" because it is applied in the dusty west end of Port Hedland and had been used in Newman historically.
The spokesperson said further studies would be required to establish a figure specific to Newman.
A Department of Health spokesperson said BHP's stance was not at odds with health advice and said jurisdictions could adopt different standards for their own policy or regulatory purposes.
"At the population level, the incremental increases in risk are small," the spokesperson said.
"Airborne [particulate matter] is associated with a number of short-term and chronic conditions, mostly cardio-vascular and respiratory.
"At current dust levels, the majority of the Newman population is unlikely to experience any health impacts."
New conditions
The Department of Water and Environmental Regulation has placed new conditions on BHP's operating licences in response to the review.
The spokesperson said BHP would be required to implement a dust improvement plan, relocate boundary dust monitors, and improve dust control measures on ore processing and handling infrastructure via additional sprayers, screens, and enclosures.
The spokesperson said excessive dust peaked in 2018/19 and had since declined due to increased oversight.
A BHP spokesperson said the company had worked in recent years to reduce dust levels and remained committed to its $300 million Pilbara Air Quality Program.
"We know other factors like the weather and naturally occurring dust contribute to air quality in the Newman area, and we will continue to work with the community and regulators to monitor dust levels and improve air quality controls," the spokesperson said.
The mining giant said it had spent $300 million over five years across the Pilbara, including $80 million in capital and $150 million in operating costs to improve dust mitigation measures in Newman.
It also noted regular testing and numerous studies that argued iron oxide dust was neither toxic nor carcinogenic.
Unions concerned
The confidence around health concerns was not shared by the Western Mine Workers Alliance, which surveyed 84 Newman residents about the daily impact of the dust.
The survey was submitted to the Department of Water and Environmental Regulation as part of the review.
Alliance joint secretary Greg Busson said most people identified a range of conditions that they believed were linked to dust, including asthma, sinus infections, bronchitis, and breathing difficulties.
A Department of Health spokesperson said, at current dust levels, the majority of Newman residents were unlikely to experience any health impacts.
However, a health study to determine any correlation between the air quality in Newman and the perceived high rates of illness has not been undertaken.
The Department of Water and Environmental Regulation's report states no evidence has been identified to verify the community's concern.
Mr Cuimara said the shortfall in data was a major concern.
"It should be mandatory. We're breathing this stuff in every day," he said.
Mr Cuimara, who is a Whadjuk-Yued Aboriginal man from land in and around Perth, said he was particularly worried for a large population of Martu traditional owners, as many people lived with chronic health problems.
"They're going to be here long after mining's finished," he said.
"With their underlying health issues that already exist, what impact is this having upon the Aboriginal stakeholder?"
The Department of Health spokesperson said Newman's small population of about 4,000 people meant an air pollution health effect study would be difficult.
"Population-level health effect sizes are small, and the health outcomes are non-specific, that is, they have many other risk factors," the spokesperson said.
"Studies of air pollution and health are mostly conducted in large populations because you need large populations to measure these small effects while controlling for other risks.
"The view of the department is that a study should only be undertaken if it can provide meaningful results, one way or the other. "
The spokesperson said the department was confident there was a low health risk, despite the lack of specific data, due to "a sound knowledge" of the relationship between PM10 dust and human health.
"Estimates of health effects associated with PM10 are based on a large body of national and international research that shows the change in population-level risk per unit change in PM10 is small," the spokesperson said.
The spokesperson said BHP had considered undertaking a study, but this was not confirmed by the company.
Smaller particles
Newman resident John Wilmot said PM10 dust was only part of the story.
Along with his wife Angela, Mr Wilmot has helped lead a community campaign to improve transparency on Newman's air quality.
His biggest concern was smaller dust particles, sized just 2.5 microns in diameter [PM2.5].
The Department of Water and Environmental Regulation review stated the particles "can result in greater risk of respiratory and cardiovascular disease".
But it stated they had not been monitored in Newman.
The department said monitoring for the concentration of PM2.5 dust had started in the wake of the review.
"What are we breathing? That hasn't been answered," Mr Wilmot said.
"It's really disappointing, and they won't be able to answer because they're not measuring PM2.5."
